Behaviourism
Behaviourism presents learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions. New behaviours are acquired through the process of conditioning in which the learner connects certain responses with stimuli which might act as a positive or negative reinforcer (Utley, 2011).
There are several foundational theorists behind this theory namely: Pavlov, Skinner and Watson.
What are some of the advantages of using this theory? Some learners will benefit from repetition which can be easily controlled by the teacher using a reward and punishment system which may provide motivation for the learner to learn. An example of this would be learning your times table at school.
However, this theory ignores the individual learners thought processes and emotions. Some learners may get bored with repetition and the learners have very little input into their learning. This approach to learning is totally teacher orientated as the responsibility for organising knowledge lies with the teacher. Students are largely passive learners, and there is limited facilitation of critical analysis, thinking, reasoning or creativity.
Does this approach still exist today within Nursing Undergraduate Programmes? In the 1990’s nursing education went through a phase of students undertaking learning contracts. These were defined as an agreement between the student and teacher that specifies the amount and type of work that will need to be done to accomplish a specific grade (reinforcement).
Today, pre and post registration nursing students use programmed instruction modules so that the student is moved through the material in small steps called frames. At the conclusion of each frame, the student is asked questions about the content in the form of short-answer, fill-in the blank, true/false, or multiple choice questions. If the student responds correctly, the student continues to move forward to explore more content at their own pace. If the student provides incorrect answers, the student is then directed to restudy specific information. An interesting point to note is that modular learning was fashionable back in the 1960’s and 1970’s in nursing.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism comprises of a group of theoretical perspectives encompassing the works of Brunner, Gayne, Harasim and Anderson.
Cognitive learning theory defines learning as a semi-permanent change in mental processes or associations (Hand, 2005). Cognitivist does not require an outward exhibition of learning, but focus on the internal processes and connections that take place during learning. There are some important classroom lessons from cognitive psychology include meaningful learning, organisation and elaboration.
Gayne identified five major types of learning being: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Gayne also emphasized three principles of learning:
1. provide instruction on the set component tasks that build toward the final task
2. Ensure that each task is mastered.
3. Sequence the tasks to ensure the optimal transfer to final task.
Paivio proposed that presenting information both visually and verbally enhances recall and recognition. Paivio was also known for the dual code theory that assumes that people process information through, both images and language. Whereas, Brunner describes learning as cognitive growth whereby the central process of learning involved categorizing information that is perceived. He proposed that individuals learn by the process of discovery, which is an active and deliberate process of obtaining knowledge by inductive reasoning from specific observation to general concepts (Utley, 2011).
Some principles of learning by the Cognitivism theory would be focusing on visual, auditory or kinaesthetic clues or task; organizing group activities around a variety of learning styles to include the above visual, auditory or kinaesthetic style by including principles of association of relationships of new information to old.
Cognitivist theory is a great theory to follow when teaching. It is always a good idea to provide different ways of learning. Some students are visual learners so the teacher needs to adapt and use pictures, videos or textbook. While other students will learner more by using audio resources by listening to a lecture or to a teacher.
This philosophical approach is used in Nursing Education by way of Cognitive apprenticeship where learning takes place by example from experience clinicians early in the nursing curriculum and throughout their nursing training. Students observe, participate, and discover expert practice through teaching strategies such as modelling, coaching, scaffolding, and learning strategies such as articulation, reflection and exploration (Taylor & Care, 1999).
The advantage of the above approach to education is that the focus is on the individual student and his/her learning process and progress. If a student has difficulty understanding or mastering a certain process or concept then additional supportive experiences are immediately designed and provided to assist the student. One of the disadvantages of this type of learning it usually involves frequent assessments of the students learning and retention, since new experiences build directly upon previous experiences.
Constructivist
This theory highlights knowledge is constructed and all learning is connected. Therefore, people build knowledge in contrast to merely acquiring it. With exposure to new perspectives, current understandings are changed, and new knowledge is constructed to make sense of experiences. Connection to new and existing knowledge means that perceptions and learning is continually changing (Iwasiw, Goldenberg & Andrusyszyn 2009).
Some examples of constructivism are experiential learning, collaborative learning by using action and reflection principles, project-based learning and task-based learning. All these examples of learning can be experienced by clinical placement within a work environment.
C
onstructivist e-Learning
Huang (2002) describes some design principles for online learning using the constructivist approach:
• People will naturally learn and work collaboratively in their lives by interacting with each other, this in turn, usually motivates people to learn more information. In order to stimulate students, the teacher needs to provide interactive learning through activities and on-line discussions which results in the learners reflecting upon content and processes of learning. This is how our current course is designed.
• The instructor needs to provide a safe environment for learners to express themselves freely in appropriate ways, to share ideas, and to ask questions. Facilitating learning can be achieved by using blackboard collaborative.
• Constructivist learning highlights that learning should be authentic and meet real life experiences. Relating your learning to classroom situations will provide authentic learning.
• The learners take ownership of the learning process and are usually highly motivated people.
• On-line learning should demonstrate how the learner has manage, analyse, critique, cross-reference, and transform information into valuable knowledge.
There are limitations to constructivism for online educators:
• Because online learning constrains us by allowing communication through use of computer technology and not a real person, it loses some form of humanity and can result in social isolation.
• Constructivism emphasizes that teaching and learning should be learner centred whereas adult learning focuses on learners as individuals since they have prior knowledge and experience. When teamwork in a collaborative learning environment is required, the teacher might experience difficulty in taking into account individual learning objectives, preferences and capabilities.
Is it possible to use 100% constructivist in your teaching?
On reflection, I believe that you cannot be 100% constructivist in your teaching when it comes to e-learning or teaching in general. There is always a certain amount of cognitive comprehension in order for learning to occur and thereby the cognitive approaches to learning still apply within the e-learning environment. In order to teach theory relating to clinical practice and then apply that theory to undertake a particular task; a teacher needs to use a combination of all learning theories to achieve the desire learning objectives. Therefore, a blended approach to learning using a variety of learning theories is required in today’s teaching environments.
References
Hand, H. (2005). Promoting effective teaching and learning in the clinical setting. Nursing Standard, 20 (39), 55-63.
Huang, H. (2002) Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1), 27-37.
Iwasiw, C. L., Goldenberg, D., Andrusyszyn, M. (2009). Curriculum Development in Nursing Education. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Taylor, K. L., & Care, D. W. (1999). Nursing education as cognitive apprenticeship. Nurse educator, 24 (4), 31-36.
Utley, R. (2011). Theory and Research for Academic Nurse Educators Application to Practice. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
